RESEARCH REVIEW
Rethinking time: Implications for well-being
Cassie Mogilner,
Hal E. Hershfield,
Jennifer Aaker,
Corresponding Author
Cassie Mogilner
UCLA Anderson School of Management, Los Angeles, CA, USA
Correspondence
Cassie Mogilner or Hal Hershfield, UCLA Anderson School of Management, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
Emails: [email protected] (C.M.) or [email protected] (H.H.)
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Hal E. Hershfield
UCLA Anderson School of Management, Los Angeles, CA, USA
Correspondence
Cassie Mogilner or Hal Hershfield, UCLA Anderson School of Management, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
Emails: [email protected] (C.M.) or [email protected] (H.H.)
Search for more papers by this authorJennifer Aaker
General Atlantic Professor of Marketing, Stanford University Graduate School of Business, Stanford, CA, USA
Search for more papers by this authorCassie Mogilner,
Hal E. Hershfield,
Jennifer Aaker,
Corresponding Author
Cassie Mogilner
UCLA Anderson School of Management, Los Angeles, CA, USA
Correspondence
Cassie Mogilner or Hal Hershfield, UCLA Anderson School of Management, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
Emails: [email protected] (C.M.) or [email protected] (H.H.)
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Hal E. Hershfield
UCLA Anderson School of Management, Los Angeles, CA, USA
Correspondence
Cassie Mogilner or Hal Hershfield, UCLA Anderson School of Management, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
Emails: [email protected] (C.M.) or [email protected] (H.H.)
Search for more papers by this authorJennifer Aaker
General Atlantic Professor of Marketing, Stanford University Graduate School of Business, Stanford, CA, USA
Search for more papers by this authorMogilner and Hershfield contributed equally to this study.
Abstract
How people think about and use their time has critical implications for happiness and well-being. Extant research on time in the consumer behavior literature reveals a predominantly dichotomized perspective of time between the present and future. Drawing on research on emotions, social relationships, and financial decision-making, we discuss how removing categorical dichotomies might lead to beneficial outcomes. From this, we propose a conceptualization of time that assumes a less stark contrast between the present and the future, allowing these two time frames to more flexibly coexist in people's minds and experiences. Finally, we discuss one way people might adopt this perspective to increase happiness—by taking an elevated or “bird's-eye” perspective of time where the future and present, as well as the past, become equally visible, and where events from different time points are treated and experienced as part of one's life and being overall.
REFERENCES
- Adler, N. E., Boyce, T., Chesney, M. A., Cohen, S., Folkman, S., Kahn, R. L., & Syme, S. L. (1994). Socioeconomic status and health: The challenge of the gradient. American Psychologist, 49(1), 15–24. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.49.1.15
- Adler, J. M., & Hershfield, H. E. (2012). Mixed emotional experience is associated with and precedes improvements in psychological well-being. PLoS ONE, 7(4), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0035633
- Aknin, L. B., Norton, M. I., & Dunn, E. W. (2009). From wealth to well-being? Money matters, but less than people think. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 4(6), 523–527. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760903271421
- Argyle, M. (1999). Causes and correlates of happiness. In D. Kahneman, E. Diener, & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Well-being: The foundations of hedonic psychology (pp. 353–373). New York, NY: Sage.
- Aron, A., & Aron, E. N. (1986). Love and the expansion of self: Understanding attraction and satisfaction. New York, NY: Hemisphere.
- Aron, A., Aron, E. N., & Smollan, D. (1992). Inclusion of other in the self scale and the structure of interpersonal closeness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63(4), 596–612. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.63.4.596
- Aron, A., Aron, E. N., Tudor, M., & Nelson, G. (1991). Close relationships as including other in the self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(2), 241–253. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.60.2.241
- Aron, A., Paris, M., & Aron, E. N. (1995). Falling in love: Prospective studies of self-concept change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(6), 1102–1112. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.6.1102
- Backlund, E., Sorlie, P. D., & Johnson, N. J. (1996). The shape of the relationship between income and mortality in the United States: Evidence from the National Longitudinal Mortality Study. Annals of Epidemiology, 6(1), 12–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/1047-2797(95)00090-9
- Baker, F., Johnson, M. W., & Bickel, W. K. (2003). Delay discounting in current and never-before cigarette smokers: Similarities and differences across commodity, sign, and magnitude. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112(3), 382–392. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.112.3.382
- Bartels, D. M., & Urminsky, O. (2011). On intertemporal selfishness: How the perceived instability of identity underlies impatient consumption. Journal of Consumer Research, 38(1), 182–198. https://doi.org/10.1086/658339
- Bartels, D. M., & Urminsky, O. (2015). To know and to care: How awareness and valuation of the future jointly shape consumer spending. Journal of Consumer Research, 41(6), 1469–1485. https://doi.org/10.1086/680670
- Baumeister, R., Hofmann, W., Summerville, A., & Vohs, K. D. (2016). Everyday thoughts about the past, present, and future: Studies of mental time travel (Working Paper). Tallahassee, FL: Department of Psychology, Florida State University.
- Baumeister, R. F., & Vohs, K. D. (2016). Introduction to the special issue: The science of prospection. Review of General Psychology, 20(1), 1–2. https://doi.org/10.1037/gpr0000072
- Baumeister, R. F., Vohs, K. D., Aaker, J. L., & Garbinsky, E. N. (2013). Some key differences between a happy life and a meaningful life. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 8(6), 505–516. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2013.830764
- Belk, R. W. (1985). Materialism: Trait aspects of living in the material world. Journal of Consumer Research, 12(3), 265–280. https://doi.org/10.1086/208515
- Belk, R. W. (1988). Possessions and the extended self. Journal of Consumer Research, 15(2), 138–168. https://doi.org/10.1086/209154
- Benhabib, J., Bisin, A., & Schotter, A. (2010). Present-bias, quasi-hyperbolic discounting, and fixed costs. Games and Economic Behavior, 69(2), 205–223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geb.2009.11.003
- Berman, J. Z., & Small, D. A. (2012). Self-interest without selfishness: The hedonic benefit of imposed self-interest. Psychological Science, 23(10), 1193–1199. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976124412
- Berns, G. S., Laibson, D., & Loewenstein, G. (2007). Intertemporal choice–toward an integrative framework. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11(11), 482–488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2007.08.011
- Bhattacharjee, A., & Mogilner, C. (2014). Happiness from ordinary and extraordinary experiences. Journal of Consumer Research, 41(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1086/674724
- Bickel, W. K., Koffarnus, M. N., Moody, L., & Wilson, A. G. (2014). The behavioral-and neuro-economic process of temporal discounting: A candidate behavioral marker of addiction. Neuropharmacology, 76(B), 518–527. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2013.06.013
- Bono, G., McCullough, M. E., & Root, L. M. (2008). Forgiveness, feeling connected to others, and well-being: Two longitudinal studies. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(2), 182–195. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167207310025
- Bryan, C. J., & Hershfield, H. E. (2012). You owe it to yourself: Boosting retirement saving with a responsibility-based appeal. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 141(3), 429–432. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026173
- Butler, E. A., Lee, T. L., & Gross, J. J. (2007). Emotion regulation and culture: Are the social consequences of emotion suppression culture-specific? Emotion, 7(1), 30–48. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.7.1.30
- Carstensen, L. L. (2006). The influence of a sense of time on human development. Science, 312(5782), 1913–1915. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1127488
- Carstensen, L. L. (2009). A long bright future: An action plan for a lifetime of happiness, health, and financial security. New York, NY: Broadway Books.
- Chen, M. K. (2013). The effect of language on economic behavior: Evidence from savings rates, health behaviors, and retirement assets. The American Economic Review, 103(2), 690–731. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.103.2.690
- Chen, E., Cohen, S., & Miller, G. E. (2010). How low socioeconomic status affects 2-year hormonal trajectories in children. Psychological Science, 21(1), 31–37. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797609355566
- Cialdini, R. B., Brown, S. L., Lewis, B. P., Luce, C., & Neuberg, S. L. (1997). Reinterpreting the empathy–altruism relationship: When one into one equals oneness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(3), 481–494. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.3.481
- Clark, A. E., Frijters, P., & Shields, M. A. (2008). Relative income, happiness, and utility: An explanation for the Easterlin paradox and other puzzles. Journal of Economic Literature, 46(1), 95–144. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.46.1.95
- Cohen, S., & Pressman, S. D. (2006). Positive affect and health. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15(3), 122–125. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2006.00420.x
- Coifman, K. G., Bonanno, G. A., & Rafaeli, E. (2007). Affect dynamics, bereavement and resilience to loss. Journal of Happiness Studies, 8(3), 371–392. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-006-9014-5
- Dai, H., Milkman, K. L., & Riis, J. (2014). The fresh start effect: Temporal landmarks motivate aspirational behavior. Management Science, 60(10), 2563–2582. https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.2014.1901
- Danner, D. D., Snowdon, D. A., & Friesen, W. V. (2001). Positive emotions in early life and longevity: Findings from the nun study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(5), 804–813. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.80.5.804
- Darley, J. M., & Batson, C. D. (1973). “From Jerusalem to Jericho”: A study of situational and dispositional variables in helping behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 27(1), 100–108. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0034449
- Davis, J. L., Green, J. D., & Reed, A. (2009). Interdependence with the environment: Commitment, interconnectedness, and environmental behavior. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 29(2), 173–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2008.11.001
- Davis, M. C., Zautra, A. J., & Smith, B. W. (2004). Chronic pain, stress, and the dynamics of affective differentiation. Journal of Personality, 72(6), 1133–1160. https://doi.org/10.111/j.1467-6494.2004.00293.x
- DeVoe, S. E., & Pfeffer, J. (2007). Hourly payment and volunteering: The effect of organizational practices on decisions about time use. Academy of Management Journal, 50(4), 783–798. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMJ.2007.26279171
- DeVoe, S. E., & Pfeffer, J. (2011). Time is tight: How higher economic value of time increases feelings of time pressure. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96(4), 665–676. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022148
- Diener, E., Lucas, R. E., & Scollon, C. N. (2006). Beyond the hedonic treadmill: Revising the adaptation theory of well-being. American Psychologist, 61(4), 305–314. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.61.4.305
- Diener, E., Suh, E. M., Lucas, R. E., & Smith, H. L. (1999). Subjective well-being: Three decades of progress. Psychological Bulletin, 125(2), 276–302. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.125.2.276
- Dillard, A. (1989). The writing life. New York, NY: Harper & Row.
- Erikson, E. H. (1959). Identity and the life cycle: Selected papers. Psychological Issues, 1, 1–171.
- Etkin, J., Evangelidis, I., & Aaker, J. (2015). Pressed for time: How goal conflict shapes time perceptions. Journal of Marketing Research, 52(3), 394–406. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmr.14.0130
- Etkin, J., & Mogilner, C. (2016). Does variety among activities increase happiness? Journal of Consumer Research, 43(2), 210–229. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ucw021
- Festjens, A., & Janiszewski, C. (2015). The value of time. Journal of Consumer Research, 42(2), 178–195. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ucv021
- Fong, G., & Hall, P. (2003). Time perspective: A potentially important construct for decreasing health risk behaviors among adolescents. In D. Romer (Ed.), Reducing adolescent risk: Toward an integrated approach (pp. 685–706). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
- Frankl, V. E. (1985). Man's search for meaning. New York, NY: Pocket Books.
- Frederick, S., Loewenstein, G., & O'Donoghue, T. (2002). Time discounting and time preference: A critical review. Journal of Economic Literature, 40(2), 351–401. https://doi.org/10.1257/002205102320161311
- Fujita, K., Trope, Y., Liberman, N., & Levin-Sagi, M. (2006). Construal levels and self-control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(3), 351–367. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.3.351
- Gardner, W. L., Gabriel, S., & Hochschild, L. (2002). When you and I are “we”, you are not threatening: The role of self-expansion in social comparison. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(2), 239–251. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.2.239
- Gino, F., & Mogilner, C. (2014). Time, money, and morality. Psychological Science, 25(2), 414–421. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613506438
- Goda, G. S., Manchester, C. F., & Sojourner, A. J. (2014). What will my account really be worth? Experimental evidence on how retirement income projections affect saving. Journal of Public Economics, 119, 80–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.08.005
- Goldstein, D. G., Hershfield, H. E., & Benartzi, S. (2016). The illusion of wealth and its reversal. Journal of Marketing Research, 53(5), 804–813. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmr.14.0652
- Graham, R. J. (1981). The role of perception of time in consumer research. Journal of Consumer Research, 7(4), 335–342. https://doi.org/10.1086/208823
- Green, L., & Myerson, J. (1996). Exponential versus hyperbolic discounting of delayed outcomes: Risk and waiting time. American Zoologist, 36(4), 496–505. https://doi.org/10.1093/icb/36.4.496
- Green, L., Myerson, J., Lichtman, D., Rosen, S., & Fry, A. (1996). Temporal discounting in choice between delayed rewards: The role of age and income. Psychology and Aging, 11(1), 79–84. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.11.1.79
- Greenwald, A. G., & Pratkanis, A. R. (1984). The self. In R. S. Wyer & T. K. Srull (Eds.), Handbook of social cognition (Vol. 2; pp. 129–178). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
- Griskevicius, V., Tybur, J. M., Delton, A. W., & Robertson, T. E. (2011). The influence of mortality and socioeconomic status on risk and delayed rewards: A life history theory approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(6), 1015–1026. https://doi.org/10.1037/aa002403
- Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 348–362. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.358
- Hausman, D. M., & Welch, B. (2010). Debate: To nudge or not to nudge. Journal of Political Philosophy, 18(1), 123–136. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9760.2009.00351.x
- Heintzelman, S. J., & King, L. A. (2014). Life is pretty meaningful. American Psychologist, 69(6), 561–574. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035049
- Hennecke, M., & Converse, B. (2017). Next week, next month, next year: How perceived temporal boundaries affect initiation expectations. Social Psychological and Personality Science. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550617691099
- Hershfield, H. E. (2011). Future self-continuity: How conceptions of the future self transform intertemporal choice. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1235(1), 30–43. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06201.x
- Hershfield, H. E., & Bartels, D. (in press). The future self. In G. Oettingen, A. T. Sevincer, & P. M. Gollwitzer (Eds), The psychology of thinking about the future. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
- Hershfield, H. E., Cohen, T. R., & Thompson, L. (2012). Short horizons and tempting situations: Lack of continuity to our future selves leads to unethical decision making and behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 117(2), 298–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2011.11.002
- Hershfield, H. E., Goldstein, D. G., Sharpe, W. F., Fox, J., Yeykelis, L., Carstensen, L. L., & Bailenson, J. N. (2011). Increasing saving behavior through age-progressed renderings of the future self. Journal of Marketing Research, 48(SPL), S23–S37. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmkr.48.spl.s23
- Hershfield, H. E., & Maglio, S. (2017). When does the present end and the future begin? (Working Paper). Los Angeles, CA: Anderson School of Management, University of California-Los Angeles.
- Hershfield, H. E., Mogilner, C., & Barnea, U. (2016). People who choose time over money are Happier. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 7(7), 697–706. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550616649239
- Hershfield, H. E., Scheibe, S., Sims, T. L., & Carstensen, L. L. (2013). When feeling bad can be good: Mixed emotions benefit physical health across adulthood. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 4(1), 54–61. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550612444616
- Hobbes, T. (1651). Leviathan. New York, NY: Dutton.
- Hoch, S. J., & Loewenstein, G. F. (1991). Time-inconsistent preferences and consumer self-control. Journal of Consumer Research, 17(4), 492–507. https://doi.org/10.1086/208573
- Huffington, A. (2016). The rest of your life. The New York Times Sunday Book Review, pp. BR10.
- Jacoby, J., Szybillo, G. J., & Berning, C. K. (1976). Time and consumer behavior: An interdisciplinary overview. Journal of Consumer Research, 2(4), 320–329. https://doi.org/10.1086/208644
- Ji, L. J., Guo, T., Zhang, Z., & Messervey, D. (2009). Looking into the past: Cultural differences in perception and representation of past information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(4), 761–769. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014498
- Joshi, P. D., & Fast, N. J. (2013). Power and reduced temporal discounting. Psychological Science, 24(4), 432–438. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612457950
- Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1984). Choices, values, and frames. American Psychologist, 39(4), 341–350. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.39.4.341
- Keltner, D., & Bonanno, G. A. (1997). A study of laughter and dissociation: Distinct correlates of laughter and smiling during bereavement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(4), 687–702. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.4.687
- Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., McGuire, L., Robles, T. F., & Glaser, R. (2002). Psychoneuroimmunology: Psychological influences on immune function and health. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70(3), 537–547. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.70.3.537
- Kim, Y. J., Park, J., & Wyer, R. S. Jr (2009). Effects of temporal distance and memory on consumer judgments. Journal of Consumer Research, 36(4), 634–645. https://doi.org/10.1086/599765
- Kim, K., Zhang, M., & Li, X. (2008). Effects of temporal and social distance on consumer evaluations. Journal of Consumer Research, 35(4), 706–713. https://doi.org/10.1086/592131
- Kirby, K. N., & Maraković, N. N. (1995). Modeling myopic decisions: Evidence for hyperbolic delay-discounting within subjects and amounts. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 64(1), 22–30. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1995.1086
- Kirby, K. N., Petry, N. M., & Bickel, W. K. (1999). Heroin addicts have higher discount rates for delayed rewards than non-drug-using controls. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 128(1), 78–87. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.128.1.78
- Kohli, M. (2005). Social organization and subjective construction of the life course. In R. L. Miller (Ed.), Biographical research methods (pp. 39–63). London, UK: SAGE.
- Laibson, D. (1997). Golden eggs and hyperbolic discounting. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 112(2), 443–478. https://doi.org/10.1162/003355397555253
- Larsen, J. T., Hemenover, S. H., Norris, C. J., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2003). Turning adversity to advantage: On the virtues of the coactivation of positive and negative emotions. In L. G. Aspinwall, & U. M. Staudinger (Eds.), A psychology of human strengths: Fundamental questions and future directions for a positive psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
- Larsen, J. T., & McGraw, A. P. (2011). Further evidence for mixed emotions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(6), 1095–1110. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021846
- Larsen, J. T., & McGraw, A. P. (2014). The case for mixed emotions. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 8(6), 263–274. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12108
- Larsen, J. T., McGraw, P. A., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2001). Can people feel happiness and sadness at the same time? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(4), 684–696. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.81.4.684
- Le, B., Dove, N. L., Agnew, C. R., Korn, M. S., & Mutso, A. A. (2010). Predicting nonmarital romantic relationship dissolution: A meta-analytic synthesis. Personal Relationships, 17(3), 377–390. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.2010.01285.x
- Leclerc, F., Schmitt, B. H., & Dube, L. (1995). Waiting time and decision making: Is time like money? Journal of Consumer Research, 22(1), 110–119. https://doi.org/10.1086/209439
- Lewin, K. (1948). Resolving social conflicts. New York, NY: Harper & Row.
- Liberman, N., Sagristano, M. D., & Trope, Y. (2002). The effect of temporal distance on level of mental construal. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38(6), 523–534. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1031(02)00535-8
- Liu, W., & Aaker, J. (2008). The happiness of giving: The time-ask effect. Journal of Consumer Research, 35(3), 543–557. https://doi.org/10.1086/588699
- Loewenstein, G. (1999). Because it is there: The challenge of mountaineering… for utility theory. KYKLOS: International Review for Social Sciences, 52(3), 315–344. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6435.1999.tb00221.x
- Magen, E., Dweck, C. S., & Gross, J. J. (2008). The hidden-zero effect representing a single choice as an extended sequence reduces impulsive choice. Psychological Science, 19(7), 648–649. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02137.x
- May, F., & Monga, A. (2014). When time has a will of its own, the powerless don't have the will to wait: Anthropomorphism of time can decrease patience. Journal of Consumer Research, 40(5), 924–942. https://doi.org/10.1086/673384
- McClure, S. M., Ericson, K. M., Laibson, D. I., Loewenstein, G., & Cohen, J. D. (2007). Time discounting for primary rewards. Journal of Neuroscience, 27(21), 5796–5804. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4246-06.2007
- McClure, S. M., Laibson, D. I., Loewenstein, G., & Cohen, J. D. (2004). Separate neural systems value immediate and delayed monetary rewards. Science, 306(5695), 503–507. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1100907
- McCullough, M. E., Rachal, K. C., Sandage, S. J., Worthington, E. L. Jr, Brown, S. W., & Hight, T. L. (1998). Interpersonal forgiving in close relationships: II. Theoretical elaboration and measurement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(6), 1586–1603. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.75.6.1586
- McKone, D., Haslehurst, R., & Steingoltz, M. (2016). Virtual and augmented reality will reshape retail. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2016/09/virtual-and-augmented-reality-will-reshape-retail
- Mellers, B. A., Haselhuhn, M. P., Tetlock, P. E., Silva, J. C., & Isen, A. M. (2010). Predicting behavior in economic games by looking through the eyes of the players. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 139(4), 743–755. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020280
- Merleau-Ponty, M. (1945). Phenomenology of perception. ( D. A. Landes, Trans.). London, UK: Routledge.
- Meyers-Levy, J., & Maheswaran, D. (1992). When timing matters: The influence of temporal distance on consumers’ affective and persuasive responses. Journal of Consumer Research, 19(3), 424–433. https://doi.org/10.1086/209312
- Mick, D. G. (2006). Meaning and mattering through transformative consumer research. Advances in Consumer Research, 33(1), 1–4. Retrieved from https://www.acrwebsite.org/
- Mick, D. G. (2017). Buddhist psychology: Selected insights, benefits, and research agenda for consumer psychology. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 27(1), 117–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2016.04.003
- Mischel, W., Shoda, Y., & Rodriguez, M. L. (1989). Delay of gratification in children. Science, 244(4907), 933–938. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.2658056
- Mogilner, C. (2010). The pursuit of happiness: Time, money, and social connection. Psychological Science, 21(9), 1348–1354. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610380696
- Mogilner, C., & Aaker, J. (2009). “The time vs. money effect”: Shifting product attitudes and decisions through personal connection. Journal of Consumer Research, 36(2), 277–291. https://doi.org/10.1086/597161
- Mogilner, C., Aaker, J., & Kamvar, S. D. (2012). How happiness affects choice. Journal of Consumer Research, 39(2), 429–443. https://doi.org/10.1086/663774
- Mogilner, C., Aaker, J. L., & Pennington, G. L. (2008). Time will tell: The distant appeal of promotion and imminent appeal of prevention. Journal of Consumer Research, 34(5), 670–681. https://doi.org/10.1086/521901
- Mogilner, C., Chance, Z., & Norton, M. I. (2012). Giving time gives you time. Psychological Science, 23(10), 1233–1238. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612442551
- Mogilner, C., & Norton, M. I. (2016). Time, money, and happiness. Current Opinion in Psychology, 10, 12–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.10.018
- Mogilner, C., Shiv, B., & Iyengar, S. S. (2012). Eternal quest for the best: Sequential (vs. simultaneous) option presentation undermines choice commitment. Journal of Consumer Research, 39(6), 1300–1312. https://doi.org/10.1086/668534
- Monga, A., & Saini, R. (2009). Currency of search: How spending time on search is not the same as spending money. Journal of Retailing, 85(3), 245–257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretai.2009.04.005
- Morewedge, C. K. (2016). Utility: Anticipated, experienced, and remembered. In G. Keren, & G. Wu (Eds.), Wiley Blackwell handbook of judgment and decision making (pp. 295–330). Malden, MA: Blackwell Press.
- Morewedge, C. K., Huh, Y. E., & Vosgerau, J. (2010). Thought for food: Imagined consumption reduces actual consumption. Science, 330(6010), 1530–1533. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1195701
- Mullainathan, S., & Shafir, E. (2013). Scarcity: Why having too little means so much. New York, NY: Times Books.
- Mund, M., & Mitte, K. (2012). The costs of repression: A meta-analysis on the relation between repressive coping and somatic diseases. Health Psychology, 31(5), 640–649. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026257
- Nisbet, E. K., Zelenski, J. M., & Murphy, S. A. (2009). The nature relatedness scale: Linking individuals’ connection with nature to environmental concern and behavior. Environment and Behavior, 41(5), 715–740. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916508318748
- Nussbaum, S., Liberman, N., & Trope, Y. (2006). Predicting the near and distant future. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 135(2), 152–161. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.135.2.152
- O'Donovan, A., Tomiyama, A. J., Lin, J., Puterman, E., Adler, N. E., Kemeny, M., … Epel, E. S. (2012). Stress appraisals and cellular aging: A key role for anticipatory threat in the relationship between psychological stress and telomere length. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 26(4), 573–579. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2012.01.007
- Okada, E. M., & Hoch, S. J. (2004). Spending time versus spending money. Journal of Consumer Research, 31(2), 313–323. https://doi.org/10.1086/422110
- O'Neill, E. (1956). Long day's journey into night. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
- Ong, A. D. (2010). Pathways linking positive emotion and health in later life. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19(6), 358–362. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721410388805
- Ong, A. D., Bergeman, C. S., Bisconti, T. L., & Wallace, K. A. (2006). Psychological resilience, positive emotions, and successful adaptation to stress in later life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(4), 730–749. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.91.4.730
- Pang, A. S. (2016). Rest: Why you get more done when you work Less. New York, NY: Basic Books.
- Peetz, J., & Wilson, A. E. (2013). The post-birthday world: Consequences of temporal landmarks for temporal self-appraisal and motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104(2), 249–266. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030477
- Pérez, E. O., & Tavits, M. (2017). Language shapes people's time perspective and support for future-oriented policies. American Journal of Political Science, 61(3), 715–727. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12290
- Peters, J., & Büchel, C. (2011). The neural mechanisms of inter-temporal decision-making: Understanding variability. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(5), 227–239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2011.03.002
- Petry, N. M., & Casarella, T. (1999). Excessive discounting of delayed rewards in substance abusers with gambling problems. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 56(1), 25–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0376-8716(99)00010-1
- Pronin, E., Olivola, C. Y., & Kennedy, K. A. (2008). Doing unto future selves as you would do unto others: Psychological distance and decision making. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(2), 224–236. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167207310023
- Quoidbach, J., Gruber, J., Mikolajczak, M., Kogan, A., Kotsou, I., & Norton, M. I. (2014). Emodiversity and the emotional ecosystem. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143(6), 2057–2066. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038025
- Read, D. (2001). Is time-discounting hyperbolic or subadditive? Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 23(1), 5–32. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011198414683
- Read, D., Frederick, S., & Airoldi, M. (2012). Four days later in Cincinnati: Longitudinal tests of hyperbolic discounting. Acta Psychologica, 140(2), 177–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2012.02.010
- Read, D., Olivola, C. Y., & Hardisty, D. J. (2016). The value of nothing: Asymmetric attention to opportunity costs drives intertemporal decision making. Management Science. https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.2016.2547
- Read, D., & Read, N. L. (2004). Time discounting over the lifespan. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 94(1), 22–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2004.01.002
- Richins, M. L. (1994). Special possessions and the expression of material values. Journal of Consumer Research, 21(3), 522–533. https://doi.org/10.1086/209415
- Richins, M. L., & Dawson, S. (1992). A consumer values orientation for materialism and its measurement: Scale development and validation. Journal of Consumer Research, 19(3), 303–316. https://doi.org/10.1086/209304
- Russell, J. A. (2003). Core affect and the psychological construction of emotion. Psychological Review, 110(1), 145–172. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.110.1.145
- Russell, J. A., & Barrett, L. F. (1999). Core affect, prototypical emotional episodes, and other things called emotion: Dissecting the elephant. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(5), 805–819. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.76.5.805
- Saini, R., & Monga, A. (2008). How I decide depends on what I spend: Use of heuristics is greater for time than for money. Journal of Consumer Research, 34(6), 914–922. https://doi.org/10.1086/525503
- Schlam, T. R., Wilson, N. L., Shoda, Y., Mischel, W., & Ayduk, O. (2013). Preschoolers’ delay of gratification predicts their body mass 30 years later. The Journal of Pediatrics, 162(1), 90–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2012.06.049
- Schultz, P. W. (2001). The structure of environmental concern: Concern for self, other people, and the biosphere. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 21(4), 327–339. https://doi.org/10.1006/jevp.2001.0227
- Schultz, P. W., Shriver, C., Tabanico, J. J., & Khazian, A. M. (2004). Implicit connections with nature. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 24(1), 31–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-4944(03)00022-7
- Seligman, M. E., Railton, P., Baumeister, R. F., & Sripada, C. (2013). Navigating into the future or driven by the past. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(2), 119–141. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612474317
- Sellier, A. L., & Avnet, T. (2014). So what if the clock strikes? Scheduling style, control, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 107(5), 791–808. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038051
- Shah, A. K., Mullainathan, S., & Shafir, E. (2012). Some consequences of having too little. Science, 338(6107), 682–685. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1222426
- Shah, A. K., Shafir, E., & Mullainathan, S. (2015). Scarcity frames values. Psychological Science, 26(4), 402–412. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797614563958
- Slaughter, A.-M. (2012). Why women still can't have it all. The Atlantic, July-August.
- Soman, D. (2001). The mental accounting of sunk time costs: Why time is not like money. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 14(3), 169–185. https://doi.org/10.1002/bdm.370
- Soman, D., & Cheema, A. (2011). Earmarking and partitioning: Increasing saving by low-income households. Journal of Marketing Research, 48(SPL), S14–S22. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmkr.48.spl.s14
- Soman, D., & Lam, V. M. (2002). The effects of prior spending on future spending decisions: The role of acquisition liabilities and payments. Marketing Letters, 13(4), 359–372. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020374617547
- Soster, R. L., Monga, A., & Bearden, W. O. (2010). Tracking costs of time and money: How accounting periods affect mental accounting. Journal of Consumer Research, 37(4), 712–721. https://doi.org/10.1086/656388
- Spiegel, D. (1998). Getting there is half the fun: Relating happiness to health. Psychological Inquiry, 9(1), 66–68. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli0901_10
- Spiller, S. A. (2011). Opportunity cost consideration. Journal of Consumer Research, 38(4), 595–610. https://doi.org/10.1086/660045
- Steinberg, L., Graham, S., O'Brien, L., Woolard, J., Cauffman, E., & Banich, M. (2009). Age differences in future orientation and delay discounting. Child Development, 80(1), 28–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01244.x
- Stephan, E., Wildschut, T., Sedikides, C., Zhou, X., He, W., Routledge, C., … Vingerhoets, A. J. (2014). The mnemonic mover: Nostalgia regulates avoidance and approach motivation. Emotion, 14(3), 545–561. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035673
- Strathman, A., Gleicher, F., Boninger, D. S., & Edwards, C. S. (1994). The consideration of future consequences: Weighing immediate and distant outcomes of behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66(4), 742–752. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.66.4.742
- Sussman, A. B., & Alter, A. L. (2012). The exception is the rule: Underestimating and overspending on exceptional expenses. Journal of Consumer Research, 39(4), 800–814. https://doi.org/10.1086/665833
- Sussman, A. B., & O'Brien, R. L. (2016). Knowing when to spend: Unintended financial consequences of earmarking to encourage savings. Journal of Marketing Research, 53(5), 790–803. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmr.14.0455
- Tam, L., & Dholakia, U. M. (2011). Delay and duration effects of time frames on personal savings estimates and behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 114(2), 142–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2010.10.009
- Thurman, R. (1998). Inner revolution. New York, NY: Riverhead Books.
- Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-level theory of psychological distance. Psychological Review, 117(2), 440–463. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018963
- Urminsky, O., & Zauberman, G. (2016). The psychology of intertemporal preferences. In G. Wu, & G. Keren (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of judgment and decision making (pp. 141–181). Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118468333
- Van Gelder, J. L., Hershfield, H. E., & Nordgren, L. F. (2013). Vividness of the future self predicts delinquency. Psychological Science, 24(6), 974–980. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612465197
- Van Gelder, J. L., Luciano, E. C., Weulen Kranenbarg, M., & Hershfield, H. E. (2015). Friends with my future self: Longitudinal vividness intervention reduces delinquency. Criminology, 53(2), 158–179. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9125.12064
- Vohs, K. D., & Schmeichel, B. J. (2003). Self-regulation and extended now: Controlling the self alters the subjective experience of time. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 217–230. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.217
- Wakslak, C. J. (2012). The experience of cognitive dissonance in important and trivial domains: A construal-level theory approach. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(6), 1361–1364. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2012.05.011
- Waugh, C. E., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2006). Nice to know you: Positive emotions, self–other overlap, and complex understanding in the formation of a new relationship. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 1(2), 93–106. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760500510569
- Waytz, A., Hershfield, H. E., & Tamir, D. I. (2015). Mental simulation and meaning in life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 108(2), 336–355. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038322
- Whillans, A. V., & Dunn, E. W. (2015). Thinking about time as money decreases environmental behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 127, 44–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2014.12.001
- Whillans, A. V., Weidman, A. C., & Dunn, E. W. (2016). Valuing time over money is associated with greater happiness. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 7(3), 213–222. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550615623842
- White, A. E., Li, Y. J., Griskevicius, V., Neuberg, S. L., & Kenrick, D. T. (2013). Putting all your eggs in one basket: Life-history strategies, bet hedging, and diversification. Psychological Science, 24(5), 715–722. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612461919
- Williams, P., & Aaker, J. L. (2002). Can mixed emotions peacefully coexist? Journal of Consumer Research, 28(4), 636–649. https://doi.org/10.1086/338206
- Wright, S. C., Aron, A., McLaughlin-Volpe, T., & Ropp, S. A. (1997). The extended contact effect: Knowledge of cross-group friendships and prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(1), 73–90. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.1.73
- Yi, R., Mitchell, S. H., & Bickel, W. (2010). Delay discounting and substance abuse-dependence. In G. Madden & W. Bickel (Eds.), Impulsivity: The behavioral and neurological science of discounting (pp. 191–211). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/12069-007
- Zauberman, G., Kim, B. K., Malkoc, S. A., & Bettman, J. R. (2009). Discounting time and time discounting: Subjective time perception and intertemporal preferences. Journal of Marketing Research, 46(4), 543–556. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmkr.46.4.543
- Zauberman, G., & Lynch, J. G. Jr (2005). Resource slack and propensity to discount delayed investments of time versus money. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 134(1), 23–37. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.134.1.23
